Twenty-eight blockchain projects building cryptographic privacy or zero-knowledge verification — from the original UTXO-shielded pools (Zcash, Monero) through TEE-based confidential chains, general-purpose ZK rollups, privacy-on-EVM smart contracts, and sovereign ZK chains. Categorized by approach, not hype. 28 个构建密码学隐私或零知识验证的区块链项目——从最早的 UTXO 屏蔽池（Zcash、Monero），到基于可信执行环境的机密链、通用型 ZK 卷叠、EVM 上的隐私合约，以及主权 ZK 链。按技术路线分类，而非炒作。
┌─ APPROACH 1 · UTXO SHIELDED POOLS (oldest) ──────────────────┐ Zcash · Monero · Aleo · Iron Fish · Penumbra · Namada ├─ APPROACH 2 · TEE-BASED CONFIDENTIAL CHAINS ────────────────┤ Secret Network · Oasis Sapphire · Phala Network ├─ APPROACH 3 · GENERAL-PURPOSE ZK ROLLUPS ───────────────────┤ zkSync Era · StarkNet · Polygon zkEVM · Scroll Linea · Polygon Miden · Taiko ├─ APPROACH 4 · PRIVACY ON EVM (smart-contract layer) ────────┤ Aztec Network · Railgun · Nocturne Labs ├─ APPROACH 5 · SOVEREIGN / SPECIALIZED ZK CHAINS ────────────┤ Mina Protocol · Manta Network · Anoma · Aleph Zero ► Psy Protocol (privacy + scale, Plonky2 recursive) └──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
The original cryptographic-privacy approach. Each transaction commits to a hidden note in a Merkle tree; spending reveals only that some note was nullified, not which. Privacy is the chain's primary purpose — not a feature added later. 最早的密码学隐私路线。每笔交易将一个隐藏的「note」提交到 Merkle 树中；花费时只揭示某个 note 被作废，但不揭示是哪一个。隐私即链本身的目的——不是后加上的功能。
The first practical shielded-pool blockchain. Pioneered zk-SNARKs in production. Halo 2 removed trusted setup; Orchard pool replaces older Sprout/Sapling.首个实用化的屏蔽池区块链。在生产环境引入 zk-SNARK。Halo 2 取消可信设置；Orchard 池取代旧的 Sprout/Sapling。
Privacy by default — every transaction shielded, no transparent option. Not ZK in the SNARK sense; uses ring signatures + bulletproofs. Largest pure-privacy network by activity.默认隐私——每笔交易都是屏蔽的，无透明选项。非 SNARK 意义上的 ZK，使用环签名 + Bulletproofs。活跃度最高的纯隐私网络。
Smart-contract L1 where computation is private by default. Custom Leo language compiles to ZK circuits. Browser-side proving for client-held data.智能合约 L1，默认计算私密。自创 Leo 语言编译至 ZK 电路。浏览器端证明，数据保留在客户端。
Sapling-derived shielded L1 with native multi-asset support. Bridged assets become privacy-preserving wrappers automatically.基于 Sapling 的屏蔽 L1，原生支持多资产。桥接资产自动转换为隐私保护包装。
Cosmos zone where every transaction is shielded — including staking, swaps, and governance. First chain with private DEX on a shielded pool.Cosmos 生态的屏蔽链——质押、兑换、治理皆为隐私交易。首个在屏蔽池上运行隐私 DEX 的链。
Built around the Multi-Asset Shielded Pool — any IBC-bridged asset can be shielded, including ATOM, OSMO, USDC. The first "shielded interchange".围绕多资产屏蔽池（MASP）构建——任何 IBC 桥接资产均可屏蔽，含 ATOM、OSMO、USDC。首个「屏蔽中转站」。
A different bet: instead of cryptography (which is slow), use trusted hardware enclaves (Intel SGX, AMD SEV, ARM TrustZone) to run computation privately. Faster than ZK, but trust shifts from math to chip vendors. 另一种押注：不依赖（较慢的）密码学，转而用可信硬件飞地（Intel SGX、AMD SEV、ARM TrustZone）私密执行计算。比 ZK 更快，但信任从数学转移到芯片厂商。
First TEE-based confidential smart-contract platform. Encrypted inputs/outputs/state. Used by sealed-bid auctions, private NFT galleries, confidential DeFi pilots.首个基于 TEE 的机密智能合约平台。加密输入/输出/状态。用于密封竞价拍卖、隐私 NFT 画廊、机密 DeFi 试点。
Confidential EVM ParaTime. Solidity contracts run inside SGX enclaves; storage encrypted at protocol level. Drop-in for existing EVM dApps that want privacy.机密 EVM ParaTime。Solidity 合约在 SGX 飞地内运行；存储在协议层加密。现有 EVM dApp 可直接接入获取隐私。
Off-chain TEE worker network executing "Phat Contracts" — confidential off-chain computation with on-chain verifiability. Powers AI inference + Web2 oracle bridges.链下 TEE worker 网络执行「Phat 合约」——机密链下计算 + 链上可验证。驱动 AI 推理与 Web2 预言机桥接。
ZK used for scaling, not necessarily privacy. Hundreds of L2 transactions get batched into one Ethereum proof. Privacy here is incidental (state on the L2 is still public). The dominant ZK deployment today by transaction volume. ZK 用于扩容，不一定用于隐私。数百笔 L2 交易批量打包为一份以太坊证明。此处的隐私是附带的（L2 上状态仍公开）。这是当今 ZK 按交易量计算最主要的部署形态。
Matter Labs' general-purpose zkEVM L2. Custom LLVM compiler (zksolc) supports Solidity + Vyper. Native account abstraction. ZK Stack for application-specific chains.Matter Labs 的通用 zkEVM L2。自研 LLVM 编译器（zksolc）支持 Solidity 与 Vyper。原生账户抽象。ZK Stack 支持应用专属链。
StarkWare's ZK rollup, built on STARKs (no trusted setup, post-quantum-friendly). Cairo language designed for provable computation. Native AA from day one.StarkWare 的 ZK 卷叠，基于 STARK（无可信设置、后量子友好）。Cairo 语言专为可证明计算设计。从第一天就原生支持账户抽象。
EVM-equivalent ZK rollup. Existing Solidity contracts deploy unchanged. Now part of the broader Polygon AggLayer ecosystem.EVM 等价的 ZK 卷叠。现有 Solidity 合约无需修改即可部署。已并入更广义的 Polygon AggLayer 生态。
Bytecode-equivalent zkEVM (Type 2). Highest fidelity to Ethereum semantics. halo2-based prover. Strong developer-tooling story.字节码等价的 zkEVM（Type 2）。对以太坊语义保真度最高。基于 halo2 的证明器。开发者工具体验完善。
ConsenSys's zkEVM L2. Tight MetaMask + Infura integration; aimed at the existing EVM developer mainstream rather than ZK-native audiences.ConsenSys 的 zkEVM L2。深度集成 MetaMask 与 Infura；面向现有 EVM 开发者主流，而非 ZK 原生受众。
Miden VM brings client-side proving to a Polygon-aligned L2. Hybrid public/private state via account-and-note model. Closest mainstream chain to Aztec's privacy-by-default ethos.Miden VM 把客户端证明带入 Polygon 阵营的 L2。通过账户-笔记模型实现混合公私状态。最贴近 Aztec「默认隐私」精神的主流链。
Type-1 (fully Ethereum-equivalent) zkEVM. "Based rollup" — sequenced by Ethereum L1 itself, not by a centralized sequencer. Open proving market.Type-1（完全以太坊等价）zkEVM。「基于以太坊」卷叠——由 L1 直接排序，无中心化排序器。开放证明市场。
Add a privacy layer on top of an existing EVM chain via shielded smart contracts. Not full Layer 1s — they inherit security from Ethereum or other base chains, but contribute the cryptographic privacy logic. 通过屏蔽智能合约在现有 EVM 链之上添加隐私层。并非完整 L1——它们从以太坊或其它基础链继承安全性，但贡献密码学隐私逻辑。
The most ambitious privacy-first L2. Noir language compiles to ZK circuits. Hybrid model: public state alongside private (per-user) state. Deep collaboration with Ethereum Foundation.最雄心勃勃的隐私优先 L2。Noir 语言编译至 ZK 电路。混合模型：公开状态与（按用户的）私密状态并存。与以太坊基金会深度协作。
A privacy smart-contract system deployed on Ethereum, BSC, Polygon, Arbitrum. ZK-shielded transfers without leaving the host chain. Optional compliance attestations (Privacy Mode + Compliance Mode).部署于以太坊、BSC、Polygon、Arbitrum 的隐私智能合约系统。在宿主链内进行 ZK 屏蔽转账。可选合规凭证（隐私模式 + 合规模式）。
Privacy primitives for Ethereum account abstraction. Designed to give every smart-contract wallet a stealth-address layer with provable spending limits. Open-source research effort.面向以太坊账户抽象的隐私原语。让每个智能合约钱包配备隐身地址层，并附可证明的消费限额。开源研究项目。
Independent chains that use ZK for something other than rolling up to Ethereum — succinct verification, cross-chain proofs, intent settlement, or true mass-scale privacy. Each picks a different problem to solve, and a different chain to be sovereign on. 不为「卷叠回以太坊」而使用 ZK 的独立链——目标各异：简洁验证、跨链证明、意图结算、或真正的大规模隐私。每条链解决不同问题，主权各自独立。
Privacy-preserving independent chain that scales to millions of users via sharded realms and recursive Plonky2 proofs. Browser-side WebGPU proving lets users hold both their keys and their compute. Bridges to Dogecoin and Solana via ZK light clients.隐私保护独立链，通过分片域与递归 Plonky2 证明扩展至百万用户规模。浏览器端 WebGPU 证明让用户同时持有密钥与算力。通过 ZK 轻客户端桥接 Dogecoin 与 Solana。
The succinct blockchain. Entire chain state proves to ~22 KB regardless of length, via recursive zk-SNARKs (Pickles). zkApps written in TypeScript (o1js). The most radical answer to "what if the chain proves itself?"极简的区块链。整条链状态通过递归 zk-SNARK（Pickles）压缩为约 22 KB，与链长无关。zkApp 用 TypeScript（o1js）编写。对「链能否自我证明？」最激进的回答。
Two-pronged: Manta Pacific is a modular ZK L2 for general dApps; Manta Atlantic is a privacy-focused parachain. Brought zk-SNARK gas fees to a competitive level on EVM.双轨并行：Manta Pacific 是面向通用 dApp 的模块化 ZK L2；Manta Atlantic 是隐私聚焦的平行链。把 zk-SNARK 气费推到 EVM 上具竞争力的水平。
Intent-first architecture: users post what they want; solvers compete on how. Native shielded execution. Conceptually the most ambitious rethinking of what a chain even is — closest sibling to Psy's intent-network direction.意图优先架构：用户发布想要什么；求解器竞争如何实现。原生屏蔽执行。在概念上对「链是什么」最激进的重思——与 Psy 意图网络方向最相近的姊妹项目。
Substrate-based L1 with sub-second finality (AlephBFT DAG consensus). Liminal is its ZK-SNARK-based privacy layer for shielded transfers. Strong EU-jurisdiction compliance positioning.基于 Substrate 的 L1，亚秒级最终性（AlephBFT DAG 共识）。Liminal 是其基于 zk-SNARK 的隐私转账层。在欧盟合规定位上优势明显。